英语短文翻译篇一：英文短文翻译
11The key problem here lies in the causality
12Those who made a fuss said that they have confirmed that violence on the media causes aggressive behavior. 13But the assumption in their study need to be tested.
14When we list game as violence or nonviolence, whether the scene a hero eat ghost can be referred to violence? 15When experimenter record the time which game player spent on reading a list of the “aggressive” or “non-aggressive” , can we be sure that they are weighing?
16In order to compare the method, ideas and conclusion of the media violence’s research, the new Harvard Media and Child Health collected these media violence, and made it standardized, their intention was an important step in the right direction.
17Another appropriate method should be desalinizing criticism before we know more.
18Many researchers have done a lot of writing , communication and validation on the threat caused by media violence
19Of course , it’s their privilege.
20But when do this now, they often announced the problem has been solved, thus incurred criticism from colleagues. 21In response to these criticisms, those who are alarmist accused of these critics and journalists to be deceived by the entertainment
industry.
22Such a conflict is not helpful to the scientific research and the society.
英语短文翻译篇二：短文翻译
1中国新年是中国最重要的传统节日，在中国也被称为春节。新年的庆祝活动 从除夕开始一直延续到元宵节（the Lantern Festival），即从农历（lunar calendar） 最后一个月的最后一天至新年第一个月的第十五天。各地欢度春节的习俗和传统 有很大差异，但通常每个家庭都会在除夕夜团聚，一起吃年夜饭。为驱厄运、迎 好运，家家户户都会进行大扫除。人们还会在门上粘贴红色的对联（couplets）， 对联的主题为健康、发财和好运。其他的活动还有放鞭炮、发红包和探亲访友等。
Chinese New Year is the most important traditional Chinese holiday. In China, it is also knownas the Spring Festival. New Year celebrations run from Chinese New Year's Eve, the last day ofthe last month of the lunar calendar, to the Lantern Festival on the 15th day of the firstmonth. Customs and traditions concerning the celebration of the Chinese New Year vary widelyfrom place to place. However, New Year's Eve is usually an occasion for Chinese families togather for the annual reunion dinner. It is also traditional for every family to thoroughly cleanthe house in order to sweep away ill fortune and to bring in good luck. And doors will bedecorated with red couplets with themes of health, wealth and good luck. Other activitiesinclude lighting firecrackers, giving money in red envelopes, and visiting relatives and friends.
2中医(Traditional Chinese Medicine)是中华文化不可分割的一部分，为振兴华夏做出了巨大的贡献。如今， 中医和西医(western medicine)在中国的医疗保健领域并驾齐驱。中医以其独特的诊断手法、系统的治疗方式 和丰富的典籍材料，备受世界瞩目。中国的中医事业由国家中医药管理局（State Administration of TCM and Pharmacology)负责。现在国家巳经出台了管理中医的政策、法令和法规，引导并促进这个新兴产业的研究和 开发。在定义上，中医是指导中国传统医药理论和实践的一种医学，它包括中医疗法、中草药(herbalogy)、针 灸(acupuncture )、推拿(massage)和气功(Qigong)。
Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) is an integral part of Chinese culture. It has made greatcontributions to the prosperity of China. Today both TCM and western medicine are being usedin providing medical and health services in China. TCM, with its unique diagnostic methods,systematic approach, abundant historical literature and materials, has attracted a lot ofattention from the international community. In China, TCM is under the administration ofState Administration of TCM and Pharmacology. National strategies, laws and regulationsgoverning TCM are now in place to guide and promote the research and development in thispromising industry. TCM is defined as a medical science governing the theory and practice oftraditional Chinese medicine. It includes Chinese medication, herbalogy, acupuncture, massageand Qigong.
3中欧经济贸易合作取得了可喜的成果。欧盟巳经成为中国的重要经贸伙伴，是中国最大的技术供应方、 第三大贸易伙伴和第五大实际投资方。2001年，中欧贸易达到766亿美元，比上一年增长11%，尤其是中国从 欧盟的进口增长了 15.8%。我非常赞赏欧中贸协（Europe-China Business Association)与比中经贸理事会 (Belgium-Chinese Economic and CommercialCouncil)为发展中欧关系所做出的努力。中欧经济贸易合作具有广 阔的前景。中欧经济具有很强的互补性，在贸易、投资、科技等领域具有很大的合作潜力。
China-EU economic and trade cooperation has yielded heartening fruits. The EU has nowbecome an important economic and trade partner of China, working as the largest technologysupplier, the third largest trading partner and the fifth largest actual investor in China.Bilateral trade reached 76.6 billion dollars in 2001, achieving an 11% increase compared to theprevious year. In particular, China?s imports from the EU grew by 15.8%. I highly appreciatethe efforts by the Europe-China Business Association and the Belgium-Chinese Economic andCommercial Council for developing China-EU ties. China-EU trade and economic cooperation isendowed with a promising future. The two economies are strongly
complimentary to eachother and hence enjoy huge potential for cooperation in trade, investment, science andtechnology areas
4要了解中国文化，就应该对中国的戏曲文化有所了解。中国地方戏种类很多，其中京剧是一个具有代表 性的剧种。作为一个独立的剧种，京剧的诞生大约是在1840年至I860年。京剧是在吸收其他地方戏营养的基础 上形成的。京剧有明确的角色分工；在念白上用北京方言；在音乐上以胡琴为主要伴奏乐器。由于京剧是在融 合各种地方戏之精华的基础上形成的，所以它不仅为北京的观众所钟爱，也受到全国人民的喜爱。
参考答案
To understand the Chinese culture, you have to know something about the Chinese operaculture. In China, there are many kinds of local operas, among which Peking Opera is arepresentative one. As an independent opera form, Peking Opera was approximately bornbetween 1840 and I860. Peking opera originated from absorbing the essentials of other localoperas. In Peking Opera there is a clear division of roles; the spoken parts are in Beijing dialect;and huqin, is the main accompaniment instrument. Since Peking Opera has combined thecream of various local operas, it is enjoyed not only by Beijing audience, but also by people allover the country.
5北京有无数的胡同(hutong)。平民百姓在胡同里的生活给古都北京带来了无穷的魅力。北京的胡同不仅仅 是平民百姓的生活环境，而且还是一门建筑艺术。通常，胡同内有一个大杂院，房间够4到10个家庭的差不多20 口人住。所以，胡同里的生活充满了友善和人情味。如今，随着社会和经济的飞速发展，很多胡同被新的高楼大 厦所取代。但愿胡同可以保留下来。
参考答案
In Beijing, there are numerous hutongs. The life of common people in hutongs brings endlesscharm to the ancient capital, Beijing. The hutong in Beijing is not only the living environmentof common people but also a kind of architecture. Usually, there is a courtyard complex insidehutong, with rooms shared by 4 to 10 families of about 20 people. Therefore, life in hutongs isfull of friendliness and genuine humanity. Nowadays, with rapid social and economicdevelopment, many hutongs are replaced by new tall buildings. I hope hutongs can bepreserved.
参考答案
China is the largest developing country in the world and its population accounts for about 22percent of the world?s total. For a long period of its history, China has been plagued bypoverty for various reasons. In the mid-1980s, the economy of an overwhelming majority ofthe rural areas in China grew dramatically by virtue of their own advantages, but a smallnumber of areas still lagged behind because of the constraints of their economic, social,historical, and natural conditions. The Chinese government, while working on all-round economicand social development, has nationwide implemented a large-scale program for development-oriented poverty relief in a planned and organized way. With the main objective of helpingpoverty-stricken people solve the food and clothing problems, this program has gone a longway toward alleviating poverty.
6东方的文明的最大特色是知足。西洋的近代文明的最大特色是不知足。知足的东方人自安于简陋的生活，故不求物质享受的提高；自安于愚昧，自安于“不识不知”，故不注意真理的发现与技艺器械的发明；自安于现成的环境与命运，故不想征服自然。西方人大不然。他们说“不知足是神圣的”。物质上的不知足产生了今日钢铁世界，蒸汽机世界，电力世界。理智上的不知足产生了今日的科学世界。社会政治制度上的不知足产生了今日的民权世界。神圣的不知足是一切革新一切进化的动力。
参考翻译
The most significant feature of eastern civilization iscontentment while the modern western civilizationdiscontent.It is Orientals,who are content with theirsimple life,not after improvement of material lif;whoare satisfied with ignorance,pay no attention to the discovery of truth and the invention ofequipments;who are self-content with their existing environment and destiny,have no desireto conquer the nature.Westerners are quite different.They say “Divine discontent”.Materialdiscontent leads to today's world of steel,of automobile,and of electricity.Mental discontentcontributes to today's world of science.Socio-political discontent gives rise to today's world ofpublic rights.Divine discontent is the driver of all renovation and evolution.
7有人说作为诗人的徐志摩是一个孩子。那是一个聪明伶俐的孩子，但这个孩子永远也长不大。他对周围的一切怀有难以满足的无穷的好奇，不分辨是清醒的还是梦幻之中的世界。他不懂得去憎恨任何人，也不相信任何人真的会喜欢他。人生的经历并没有置他于不顾，却也未能使他改变。他与人(来自:WWw.zHaoqT.net 蒲公 英文 摘:英语短文翻译)间事物游戏，像孩子游戏手中的玩具。当然啦，志摩也只有自己的烦恼，或者说也有烦恼的时候。
Some people say that Hsu Tse-mo,the poet,is achild,a clever child.He can never grow old,and has aninsatiable curiosity about all around him.He can'tdistinguish between the world of wake and theworld of dream.What's more,he doesn't hateanyone,and doubts that if anyone really likes him.Although he has experienced so much inlife,those experiences fail to change him.He plays with the things of life,just like a child playingwith his toys.To be sure,he also has his own sorrows.To put it in another way,he also has timeof worries.
8一朵雪花的体态是轻盈的，宛如六枚小银针，千针万线，给南开大学校园绣出了合身的水晶外套。但是，正如童话世界也有缺陷一样，文史楼北墙边一株年轻的龙柏（cypress），由于一夜风雪吹压，已经倾侧成30度斜角了。
远处走来几个身背照相机的年轻人。其中那位穿黑呢大衣的姑娘真美，一双亮晶晶杏核儿大眼，似湖？似星？谁也说不清，只惹得路人不时侧目朝她张望。这群市大学生摄影协会会员准备捕捉大自然恩赐的美妙镜头，心情舒畅地说笑着，渐渐地走近这棵倾斜的龙柏。
Snowflakes are light, each having six tiny silverneedles.Like thousands of needles and threads,theyworked together to weave a well-fitted caystal outfitfor the campus of Nankai University.However,nothing is perfect, not even in a fairyland. The youngdragon cypress at the north wall of the Literature and History Building was bent over at a 30degree angle after the night's snowstorm.
Several students carne from a distance, each carrying a camera. Among them was a girl in ablack wool overcoat was a real beauty.Her almond-shaped eyes are like pools of clear water orbright stars in the sky,which was hard to tell. But she herself was certainly eye-catching!Thesemembers of College Photographers Association of the city had come out to capture thebeautiful scenery endowed by nature. Laughing and talking merrily, they were approaching theleaning cypress.
9请将下面这段话翻译成英文：
众所周知，在中国与欧洲的经贸关系中，欧盟占有重要的地位。2008年中国与欧盟的贸易额占中国与欧洲贸易总额的77%，目前中国欧盟已互为第三大贸易伙伴。欧盟是中国产品出口的一个传统市场，在我对外贸易中的比重不断上升。与此同时，中国也成为欧盟一个重要出口市场，在其对外贸易中的比重也在上升。欧盟还一直是中国引进先进技术和设备的重要来源。中国与欧盟在先进技术，尤其是高科技产品方面的合作有助于欧盟扩大对华出口，也有利于中国企业产业升级、技术更新，符合双方利益，具有很大的发展空间。
It is widely acknowledged that the EU occupies animportant position in terms of Sino-Europeaneconomic and trade relation.In 2008,the tradevolume between China and the EU accounted for77% of Sino-European total trade.Currently,Chinaand EU have mutually become the third largest trading partners.The EU is a traditional marketfor China's exports,the precentage of which is increasing in China's foreign trade.At the sametime,China also has become an important market for the EU's exports and its percentage is alsoincreasing in EU's foreign trade.The EU has always been an important source from which Chinaintroduces advanced technologies and equipments.The Sino-EU cooperation in the field ofadvanced technologies,especially the new and high-tech products,helps expand the EUexports to China and also helps Chinese enterprises upgrade their industries,renovate theirtechnologies.All these are in the interests of both sides and have considerable space forfurther development.
10我国政府强化了对外贸的管控，强化了商会这类中介机构的服务与协调功能。我们希望继续加强外贸体制的改革，使之逐渐走向竞争，并受到诸如关税，汇率和利率等法律和经济手段的制约。所有这些都应有助于加速中国外贸的国际化进程，为宏观经济局面的形成创造一个较好的环境。通过促进商贸业，制造业，农业，技术产业和银行之间更为密切的合作，我们能够为国际市场提供更多，更好的出口产品。在这种情况下，中国自然会成为一个大市场。
Our government has strengthened the controlover foreign trade,and reinforced the service andcoordination functions of chambers of commerceas intermediary organizations.We hope to continueto enhance the reform of our foreign trade systemin order to gradually make it competitive and restricted by both legal means and economicmeasures,such as tariff,exchange rate and interest rate.All these should help speed up theinternationalization of China's foreign trade and create a better environment for the prospectof macro-economy and macro-trade.By promoting a closer cooperation among the industriesof business and trade,manufacture,technology and banks,we will be able to provide more andbetter export commodities for the international market.Given this situation,China will naturallybecome a large market.
11关于吃月饼这个传统的来历有两个传说。一个是唐朝的神话故事，说的是当时地球被10个太阳包围着。有一天10个太阳同时出现在天空中，巨大的热量几乎把地球烤焦了。多亏一位名叫后羿的神箭手射下了9个太阳，地球才被保住。为了奖励后羿，王母娘娘赐给后羿一种长生不老药，但是王母警告他必须正当使用。然而后羿没有理会王母娘娘的警告，他被名利冲昏了头脑，变成了一个暴君。后羿美丽的妻子嫦娥对他的暴行再也不能袖手旁观，于是她偷走了后羿的长生不老药，飞到月亮上逃避后羿的狂怒。从此就有了关于月宫仙子嫦娥，这个月亮上的美丽女人的传说。
There are two legends which claim to explain the tradition of eating mooncakes. One Tang Dynasty myth holds that the Earth once had 10 suns circling it. One day all 10 suns appeared at once, scorching the planet with their heat. It was thanks to a skillful archer named Hou Yi that the Earth was saved. He shot down all but one of the suns. As his reward, the Heavenly Queen Mother gave Hou Yi the Elixir of Immortality, but she warned him that he must use it wisely. Hou Yi ignored her advice and, corrupted by fame and fortune, became a tyrannical leader. Chang-Er, his beautiful wife, could no longer stand by and watch him abuse his power so she stole his Elixir and fled to the moon to escape his angry wrath. And thus began the legend of the beautiful woman in the moon, the Moon Fairy.
12和平稳定是发展的前提和基础。上个世纪，人类经历了两次世界大战，生灵涂炭， 经济社会发展遭受严重挫折。第二次世界大战结束以来，世界经济能够快速增长，主要 得益于相对和平稳定的国际环境。 我们应该恪守联合国宪章宗旨和原则，充分发挥联合国及其安理会在维护和平、缔 造和平、建设和平方面的核心作用。坚持通过对话和协商，以和平方式解决国际争端。
我们应该坚持国家不论大小、强弱、贫富都是国际社会平等一员，以民主、包容、 合作、共赢的精神实现共同安全，做到一国内部的事情一国自主办、大家共同的事情大 家商量办，坚定不移奉行多边主义和国际合作，推进国际关系民主化。
Peace and stability form the prerequisite and foundation for development. The two world wars in the last century caused mankind untold sufferings and world economic and social development severe setbacks. It is mainly due to the relatively peaceful and stable international environment that the world economy has been able to grow at a fast pace in the post-war era. We should abide by the purposes and principles of the UN Charter and bring into full play the central role of the United Nations and its Security Council in peace keeping, peace making and peace building. We should seek peaceful settlement of international disputes through dialogue and consultation. All countries, big or small, strong or weak, rich or poor, are equal members of the international community. We should work for common security in a spirit of democracy, inclusiveness, cooperation and win-win progress. Internal affairs of a country should be handled independently by the country itself and international affairs should be managed collectively through consultation by all. We should be committed to multilateralism and international cooperation, and promote democracy in international relations.
13总结一年来的工作，我们清醒地看到，经济社会发展中还存在不少问题和困难。必须坚持把人民群众利益放在第一位。要切实维护人民群众的经济、政治和文化权益，着力解决关系群众切身利益的突出问题，保障城乡困难群众的基本生活。不断满足人们日益增长的物质文化需要，是社会主义现代化建设的根本目的。只有执政为民，我们的各项事业才能获得最广泛最可靠的群众基础和力量源泉。
In reviewing our work of the past year, we clearly seethat many problems and difficulties remain in oureconomic and social developmentWe must always put the interests of the people first.We must truly protect the people?s economic, political and cultural rights and interests, payparticular attention to solving acute problems affecting their vital interests, and ensure thatpoor urban and rural residents have the basic necessities of life. protect the people‘s economic, political and culturalrights and interestsThe fundamental goal of our socialist modernization drive is to continually meet the growingmaterial and cultural needs of the people.Only if we exercise power for the good of the people can we enjoy the broadest and mostreliable support from the people and draw from them the strength for accomplishing all ourundertakings.
14如果说我确实有所成就的话，那也只是因为我坚信不断尝试就会成功。遇到挫折时，你可以暂时把问题放一放，一味纠结不仅无济于事，有时反倒使情况更糟。先去读一本好书、见见久未谋面的好友或去户外骑游一番；再回头看待问题，你或许会感到柳暗花明。这样做后，别忘了多加反省：“为什么这个方法会奏效？下次能不能做得更好呢？”看你定的是什么目标，这种方法可以被反复有效应用。如果你坚定不移地持续提升自己，最后成功肯定非你莫属。孜孜不倦向来无敌。
The only reason I?ve managed to accomplishanything isbecause I am a firm believer incontinuous improvement.If you fail insomething, distance from the event for a day or two, because agonizing overtheproblem will not make it go away (and will make it a lot worse).Read a goodbook, catch up with some friends you haven?t seen in a long time, or go onanature hike. You will be able to look at the issue with a fresh perspective.After you have done that, ask yourself: “Why did this work out and how can Ido better nexttime?” This process very well could repeat itself several times depending on the nature of your goal,but if you keep making a firm commitment to continuously improve yourself, you will developso much that the only option left is success. Consistent hustle always wins.
15某年某月某日,气象台预报天气:B 市今日晴转阴,气温 27至 32℃。王老与张老两人相约上午在郊外
英语短文翻译篇三：专业英语短文翻译 2
第五章
Section A Why Theories of Learning 为什么需要学习理论。
Most people have an intuitive notion of what it means to learn: They can do something that they could not do before or they know something that they did not know before. In most psychological theories, learning is defined as “a persisting change in human performance or performance potential(Driscoll, 2000, p.11), however, the major concepts and principles of learning vary with learning theories.大多数人往往凭直觉认为学习就是学会做一些以前不会做的事情。或者是知道一些以前不知道的。大多数心理学理论将学习定义为人类能力和潜能的持续改变。然而不同的学习理论对学习的主要概念和原理有不同的看法。
Regardless of the differences among psychological perspectives on learning, a solid foundation in various learning theory is undoubtedly the most essential element in the preparation of ISD professional. They must be familiar with the theory and research on learning and must be able to apply them to actual practice. For example, a designer working on an early childhood education project will find insight into children’s behavior and the value of a rich learning environment in the work of Piaget. Ausubel and Rothkopf are valuable resources when producing textual materials. Designers familiar with social learning theory of Bandura will not ignore environmental factors that significantly affect instructional programs, nor overlook the power of informal learning channels (e.g., observational learning). Bruner’s rich philosophical insight into discovery learning and problem solving, Keller’s work on motivation, Knowles’ emphasis on factors that facilitate adult learning, and the work of others contribute to a designer’s overall understanding of the learning process and skill in designing instructional strategies. Cognitive science (Klatzky, Anderson, Gagne, Wildman & Burton) is making a major contribution to our understanding of how humans perceive, process, store, and retrieve information. Schema theory, elaboration, metacognition, automaticity, expert/novice studies, and transfer are only a few of the constructs studied by cognitive psychologists that have important implication for the design of instruction.
尽管心理学上对学习的观点存在差异。拥有一个坚实的学习理论基础无疑是教学系统设计专业人员职前培养中最基本的要素。教学系统设计人员必须熟悉关于学习的理论和研究。并将之付诸实践。例如。一个致力于早期儿童教育项目的设计者将会借助皮亚杰的著作来研究儿童行为以及丰富学习环境的价值。奥苏贝尔和罗斯科普夫的思想是开发文本资料的重要理论资源。熟悉班杜拉的社会学习理论的设计者不会忽视对教学计划有很大影响的环境因素。也不会忽略非正式学习途径(如观察学习)的影响力。布鲁纳关于发现学习和问题求解的哲学思想。凯勒在学习动机方面的工作。诺尔斯对促进成人学习因素的强调。以及他人的工作都有助于设计者从大体上理解学习的过程和教学策略设计的技巧。认知科学。克拉斯基。安德森。加涅。威廉姆和伯顿。在解释人类如何感知，加工，存储和重和重解信息等方面作出了很大的贡献。图式理论。精细化。元认知。自动化。专家。新手的学习。以及迁移理论都对教学设计有重要启示。这只是认知心理学家们众多研究中的一小部分。
Without a broad-based foundation in learning theory, the practice of ISD becomes narrowly focused on means (the steps in the systems model) rather that on the rightful end (learning) (Schiffman, 1986, pp.137-138).倘若缺乏广泛的学习理论基础。教学系统设计实践的焦点就会狭隘的集中在方法上(系统模型中的步骤)而不是恰当的学习结果上。
Section B What is Behaviorism?什么是行为主义？
Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select -- doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors.
给我一打健康、外形完好的婴儿，把他们放在我设计的特殊的环境里培养，我敢保证，随便挑出一个来，我就能把他训练
成为我所选择的任何一类专家---医生、律师、艺术家、商业首领，甚至是乞丐或小偷，而无论他的才能、爱好、倾向、能力或他的先辈的职业和种族是什么。
Behavioral psychology, also known as behaviorism, is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment. According to behaviorism, behavior can be studied in a systematic and observable manner with no consideration of internal mental states.行为心理学，也称为行为主义，是一种基于所有的行为都是通过条件刺激而产生的学习理论。条件刺激就是重现与环境的相互作用。根据行为主义的观点，可以通过系统方法和观察的方式来研究人的行为，而不用考虑人的内部心理状态。
The Rise of Behaviorism
Psychology changed dramatically during the early 20th-century as another school of thought known as behaviorism rose to dominance. Behaviorism was a major change from previous theoretical perspectives, rejecting the emphasis on both the conscious and unconscious mind. Instead, behaviorism strove to make psychology a more scientific discipline by focusing purely on observable behavior.20世纪初，心理学发展成为一个学派被认为是行为主义的崛起。忽略有意识和无意识的想法是行为主义与之前的理论思想的一个重大改变。相反，行为主义完全通过专注于可视的行为来使得心理学变成更科学的学科。
Behaviorism had it's earliest start with the work of a Russian physiologist named Ivan Pavlov. Pavlov's research on the digestive systems of dogs led to his discovery of the classical conditioning process, which demonstrated that behaviors could be learned via conditioned associations. Pavlov demonstrated that this learning process could be used to make an association between environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus.最早从事于行为主义研究工作的是俄罗斯的生理学家巴甫洛夫。他的关于狗的消化系统的研究也导致了经典性条件反射过程的发现，这个发现证明了行为都能通过关联的条件刺激来学习。巴甫洛夫还证明了这个学习过程可以用于创造环境刺激与本能刺激间的相关联。
An American psychologist named John B. Watson soon became one of the strongest advocates of behaviorism. Initially outlining the basics principles of this new school of thought in his 1913 paper Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It, Watson later went on to offer a definition in his classic book Behaviorism (1924), writing:一位名叫约翰沃森的美国心理学家很快就成为了行为主义的拥护者之一。1913年，在他的论文《从行为主义者的视角看心理学》中概括了这个新学派的基本框架与原则。之后与1924年在他的经典著作行为主义中提供了一个定义。他这样写：
“Behaviorism...holds that the subject matter of human psychology is the behavior of the human being. Behaviorism claims that consciousness is neither a definite nor a usable concept. The behaviorist, who has been trained always as an experimentalist, holds, further, that belief in the existence of consciousness goes back to the ancient days of superstition and magic.” The impact of behaviorism was enormous, and this school of thought continued to dominate for the next 50 years. Psychologist B.F. Skinner furthered the behaviorist perspective with his concept of operant conditioning, which demonstrated the effect of punishment and reinforcement on behavior.“行为主义??主张人类心理学的主题是人类的行为。行为主义宣称意识既不是一个明确的,也不是一个有用的概念。行为主义者总是坚持经验主义，而且，意识的存在问题可以追溯到古代的迷信和魔法。”行为主义这个学派在接下来的50年里产生了巨大的影响。心理学家斯金纳的操作性条件反射证明了惩罚与强化对行为的影响，进一步充实了行为主义的观点。
While behaviorism eventually lost its hold on psychology, the basic principles of behavioral psychology are still widely in use today. Therapeutic techniques such as behavior analysis, behavioral modification and token economies are often utilized to help children learn new skills、and overcome maladaptive behaviors, while conditioning is used in many situations ranging from parenting to education.尽管行为主义最终失去了它所坚持的心理学，但行为心理学的基本准则在今天仍被广泛使用。治疗技术中的行为分析、行为修正，行为矫正，在多数情况下用于从养育到教育的过程中帮助孩子学习新技能、克服不适应的行为。
Section C What is Cognitivism? 什么是认知主义
“Cognitive theorists recognize that much learning involves associations established through contiguity and repetition. They also acknowledge the importance of reinforcement（强化）, although they stress its role in providing feedback about the correctness of responses over its role as a motivator. However, even while accepting such behavioristic concepts, cognitive theorists view learning as involving the acquisition or reorganization of the cognitive structures through which humans process and store information.”认知主义家指出，大多数的学习都涉及到通过接触与重复建立确切的联系。虽然他们强调它在提供正确性反馈方面的作用胜过它作为动力的作用，但是也承认强化的重要性。然而，尽管他们接受行为主义的某些观点，但是认知主义家们认为学习是认知结构的获得和重组即人们加工的和存储信息的过程。
The Basics of Cognitivism 基本的认知主义
Cognitivists view learning as a reorganization of the cognitive structure in which individuals store information (Good & Brophy, 1990 ). According to cognitivist, knowledge occurs in internal structures called schemas . When new information comes in though the senses , it is compared with the schemas already present , and the schemas may then be combined or changed in light of the new information . Information is processed in three stages. It first enters through the senses , and, if it is important or interesting , it then goes to short-term memory , where it may be kept for 20 seconds or more . Some of this information in short-term memory may then go on long-term memory , where it is stored and from which it can be retrieved.认知主义者认为学习是个人对存储信息与认知结构的重组。根据认知主义的观点看，知识是重现内在结构的概念。当感知到新信息时，会与先前已存在的概念相比较，然后进行整合或者将信息作出改变。信息的加工分为三个步骤。首先，通过感知觉获得信息，如果它重要或者有趣，就会进行至少保持20秒的短时记忆。一些短时记忆的信息可能会被检索出来以长时记忆的形式存储。
Cognitivists hold that meaningful information is easier to learn and information that is not meaningful to the learner, and that practicing and rehearsing information improves retention (Mergel, 1998) . It follows from this that workers who are learning the elements of a new skill will learn more easily if the new skill is meaningful or relevant to them. It also follows that the more the information about how to perform the new task is repeated , the better the worker will retain it. 认知主义坚信，对于学习者而言，学习有意义的信息比无意义的信息更容易，并且，练习和预演知识能改善记忆力。下面的例子也说明了这一点。一个工人学习要学习一种新技术的基础，如果它有意义或者与他们相关就会相对容易。并且知道如何反复操作的信息越多
就能越好的学习它。
Section D Constructivism D部分 建构主义
Constructivism is a type of learning theory the explain human learning as an active attempt to construct meaning in the world around us . Constructiviets believe that learning is more active and self-directed than either behaviorism or cognitive theory would postulate.建构主义学习理论是这样一种学习理论，即他认为学习是人们对周围世界的积极的有意义的建构。建构主义认为，与行为主义和认知主义相比，学习应该是更加积极和自主的。
Constructivism divides learning into two types: accommodation and assimilation. The focus is on the individual is desire and ability to learn , and the teacher or therapist is merely there to help guide self-directed learning. 建构主义将学习分为两种类型：顺应和同化。重点在于个人的学习意愿和学习能力，并且老师或者专家仅仅帮助指导自主学习。 The basics of constructivism 基本的建构主义
Bartlett (1932) pioneered what became the constructivist approach (Good & Brophy, 1990). Constructivists believe that "learners construct their own reality or at least interpret it based upon their perceptions of experiences, so an individual's knowledge is a function of one's prior experiences, mental structures, and beliefs that are used to interpret objects and events." "What someone knows is grounded in perception of the physical and social experiences which are comprehended by the mind." (Jonasson, 1991). 巴特利特是倡导建构学习方法的先驱者。建构主义认为“学习者
建构事实或者至少在解释事实时都是基于他们的感知经验，因此，个人的知识是缘由感知经验，心理结构和揭示事物信心的集合”“有人认为知识是建立在身体感知和社会经验的基础上的”
If each person has their own view about reality, then how can we as a society communicate and/or coexist? Jonassen, addressing this issue in his article Thinking Technology: Toward a Constructivist Design Model, makes the following comments: 如果每个人对现实都有他们自己的看法，那我们怎样开展社交和和平共处呢？乔纳生在他的思维技术：致建构主义设计模型一文中提及这个问题，并引发了以下的思考：
"Perhaps the most common misconception of constructivism is the inference that we each therefore construct a unique reality, that reality is only in the mind of the knower, which will doubtlessly lead to intellectual anarchy." 也许，最常见的对建构主义的误解就是这样一种推论，我们每个人都构建一个只存在我们自己心里的独特的事实，就会导致思维混乱。
"A reasonable response to that criticism is the Gibsonian perspective that contends that there exists a physical world that is subject to physical laws that we all know in pretty much the same way because those physical laws are perceivable by humans in pretty much the same way." 对于这个批判的观点，作出了合理的回应，他认为存在这样一个物理世界，它受物理规则的制约，并且我们几乎都能用相同的方式感知这种规则。
"Constructivism also believes that much of reality is shared through a process of social negotiation......" 建构主义也认为很多现实是通过社会协商的过程达成共享的?..
If one searches through the many philosophical and psychological theories of the past, the threads of
constructivism may be found in the writing of such people as Bruner, Ulrick, Neiser, Goodman, Kant, Kuhn, Dewey and Habermas. The most profound influence was Jean Piaget's work which was interpreted and extended by von Glasserfield (Smorgansbord, 1997). 如果一项研究要经历许多过去的哲学和心理学理论，那么，在康德,库恩,杜威等人的书中都曾写到建构主义。影响最长远的还是德国格拉斯菲尔德翻译的的让.皮亚杰的作品。
Section A Gagne’s Theory of Instruction加涅的教学理论
Although many learning theorists may be interested in what their work means for instruction, the explanation of learning is their primary concern. Robert M. Gagne, by contrast, was concerned primarily with instruction and how what was known about learning can be systematically related to the design of instruction. He proposed and integrated and comprehensive theory of instruction that is based primarily on two foundations: cognitive information processing theory and Gagne’s own observations of effective teaching in the classroom.尽管很多学习理论家可能会对他们研究工作的教学意义感兴趣。但他们最关心的还是对学习的解释。相反。罗伯特加涅主要关心的是教学以及如何将已知的有关学习的理论与教学设计系统化的联系起来。它基于认知信息加工理论和自己在课堂上对有效教学的观察提出一整套综合性的教学理论。
As it evolved, then, Gagne’s theory of instruction came to comprise three components:
(1) a taxonomy of learning outcomes that defined the types of capabilities humans can learn;
(2) internal and external learning conditions associated with the acquisition of each category of learning
outcome;
(3) nine events of instruction that each facilitates a specific cognitive process during learning.随着理
论的不断完善。加涅的教学理论逐渐发展为三部分内容:一、定义人类学习能力类型的学习结果分类理论；二、
与所习得各种类型学习结果相关的内部和外部学习条件理论；
三、在学习中促进具体认知过程的九段教学法；
Taxonomies of learning existed before and since Gagne’s formulation of his, but none besides his includes all three domains in which individuals were presumed to learn: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. According to Gagne (1972, 1985; Gagne & Medsker, 1996), there are five major categories of learning:学习分类在加略理论的兴城之前就已存在，但是包括加略学习结果分类理论在内，都未完全包含个体应学习内容的三个域：认知、情感和精神运动。根据加略理
论（1972,1985：加略和梅德斯克，1996），认为有一下五种主要的学习分类：
(1) verbal information, that is , knowing “that” or “what”;
(2) intellectual skills, that is, applying knowledge;
(3) cognitive strategies, that is, employing effective ways of thinking and learning;
(4) attitudes, that is, feelings and beliefs that govern choices of personal action;
(5) motor skills, that is, executing precisely, smoothly and accurately timed movements.
（1）言语信息，即知道是“那个”或“什么”； （2）智慧技能，也就是应用知识；（3）认知策略，也就是使用有效的思考和学习方式；（4）态度，也就是掌控个人行为选择的感觉和信念；（5）动作技能，也就是能再限制的时间内准确、熟练、精确地运动。
The reason for defining different categories of learning outcomes stems from the assumption that they must all require different conditions for learning. For example, learning to ride a bicycle(a motor skill) is different in fundamental ways from learning to solve scientific problems(intellectual skill).之所以根据不同学习结果来定义不同的学习类型，是因为不同类型的学习需要不同的学习条件。列如，学习骑自行车（一种动作技能）与学习乘法表（言语信息）在方式上是有本质区别的，与学习解决科学问题（智慧技能）的基本方式也大不相同。
In addition to conditions of learning that are unique to each leaning outcome, there are conditions of learning which facilitate the process of learning in general. Gagne conceived of the nine events of instruction as learning conditions to support internal processed such as attention, encoding, and retrieval. The events of instruction are presented briefly below:
除了每一种学习结果所需要的独特学习条件之外，学习条件还包括可以促进学习过程的一般条件。加略给出了九段教学法，作为支持注意力、编码和知识提取等内部学习过程的学习条件。该教学法简述如下：
1.gaining attention: a stimulus change to alert the leaner and focus attention on desired features.
2.Informing the learner of the objective:a statement or demonstration to form an expectancy in the learner as to the goals of instruction.
3.stimulating recall of prior learning： a question or activity to remind the learner of prerequisite knowledge.
4.Presenting the stimulus:an activity or information that presents the content of what is to be learned.
5.Providing learning guidance: a cue or strategy to promote encoding.
6.Eliciting performance:an opportunity to practice or otherwise perform what is being learned.
7.Providing feedback:information of a corrective nature that will help leaners to improve their performance.
8.Assessing performance：an opportunity to demonstrate what has been learned.
9.Enhancing retention and transfer;examples or activities that prompt the learner to go beyond the immediate context of instruction. 1.引起注意：刺激性变化引起学习者的注意力，使其集中精力与所期望的特征。2.明确学习目标：通过描述或展示使学习者形成对教学目标的期望。3.刺激回忆先前的学习：设计问题或活动使学习者想以前所学知识。4.呈现刺激：用活动或信息来呈现即将学习的内容。5.提供学习指导：促进编码的线索或策略。6.引导作业：提供实践活动的机会或执行所学内容。7.提供反馈：正确的信息反馈将会帮助学习者提升绩效。8.评估作业：提供平价所学知识的机会。9.促进保持和迁移:提供案例或活动以促进学习对当前教学知识进行迁移。
The application of Gagne’s theory is often a highly analysis affair，and it is therefore possible to lose sight of the overall context for learning while all the details of instruction.As a means of helping instructional designers integrate multiple goals into instruction. 加略教学理论的应用往往是一件需要精确分析的事情，因而在处理教学细节的 过程中难免会忽视在整体上把握学习镜脉。作为帮助教学设计的工具，教学设计者可以将许多目标整合到教学中。
Section B Bloom' s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives①布鲁姆的教育目标分类法
At the present time, it is sufficient to state that instructional objectives are concrete
statements of the goals toward which instruction is directed. They play an important role
in the process of learning and instruction. 目前,它足以状态,教学目标是具体目标的陈述为指导指导。他们中起重要作